How Important Are Fossil Fuels To Society Environmental Sciences Essay

How Important Are Fossil Fuels To Society Environmental Sciences Essay Thirst for knowledge is humans natural behaviour which has led to various inventions and discoveries. Humans need energy for doing all types of work. Without generating energy, all the luxuries of everyday life will come to an end. Fossil fuels, a remarkable discovery by humans have simplified our lives. However, the rate at which these resources are being depleted are threatening to run out soon. Fossil fuel usage began on a large scale with the introduction of industrial revolution in 1800s.Nowadays, a lot of alternative energy options are available, like wind , hydro , and sun energy. But ironically, majority of our energy is derived from non-renewable energy sources, which are commonly called fossil fuels. Like every other invention or discovery influence society, same applies to fossil fuels as well. In order to know how fossil fuels affect our society, one needs to examine it. Without fossil fuels, there wouldnt be any means of transportation, and the world and the economy would come to standstill. We need energy to heat houses, and energy is needed for agriculture and industries. Without fossil fuels, there would be no energy, no heat, and the cost on running on the alternatives would be a lot higher than what we have on fossils. Fossil fuels are comprised of hydrogen and carbon bonds. Coal, oil and natural gas, are the three kinds of fossil fuels used for delivering energy. With the increasing population, the demand for energy also increases, which increases the pressure on the environment. Another major variable, that threatens and pressurizes the energy sector to move into nuclear, solar and other environmentally friendly energy sources, is due to the fear of climate change. Coal, oil and natural gas supplies are forecasted to peak as the reserves are running out. Coal is a form of solid fossil fuel which is formed by decay of land vegetation. It is plenteous as compared to oil and natural gas. Forecasters predict every now and then, that the coal usage will increase as oil supplies becomes less. Present supply of coal might last about 200 years or more. Developing countries such as India and China, cant meet the expense of using natural gas or oil, and therefore depend on coal for delivering energy. According to IEAs world energy outlook forecast (2006), 85% of the increase in coal demand is likely to come from China. Coal consumption is predicted to increase by 1.4% yearly until 2030, with about two-thirds of the demands in India and China. According to the statistical survey done (2007), The coal consumption in 2006 was 3 billion tonnes. China, India, South Africa and Germany claimed to be the largest consumers of coal. The natural gas exploration is getting cheaper and big industries are switching to natural gas instead of coal which has other side problems, besides environmentally unfriendly. Oil is a liquid fossil fuel, formed from the remainders of marine micro-organisms deposited on the sea floor. Millions of years after, the deposits eventually end up in sediments and rock, in which oil is confined. Oil consists of a lot of organic compounds, which are altered into usable products by refining process. Oil is not found in all the places on earth, and there have been wars on oil supplies. Gulf war which happened in 1991, is a well-known example of this. The local production of oil has lowered since 1960.In 1970s the oil production has plunged reaching a peak point of 9.6 million barrel per day(Mbbl/d). Since then, oil demand has increased significantly such that industries supply less than half of all its oil that we consume. However there had been a radically change in consumption from 1960 to 1970 (from about 10 Mbbl/d to about 17 Mbbl/d) as shown in the figure. Moving to suburb and driving for miles caused an increase in consumption which was a turning point in American societys lifestyle. Nevertheless, during 1970s, demand levelled off and then declined suddenly as oil prices increased to over a dollar per gallon from $0.25. Since 1980s, oil demand has grown progressively as prices stabilized while inflation continued to grow. Currently we sit at 19.6 million barrel per day in U.S. which is about 25% of the worldwide consumption of 77 Million barrels per day. Natural gas is a gaseous form of fossil fuel which is versatile, available in plenty and relatively cleaner as compared to the oil and coal. Like oil, it is also formed from the remainders of marine micro-organisms. Natural gas is made up of methane, and is highly compressible, and is drilled to bring it on the earths crust. More coal was used until 1999, than natural gas. It has surpassed coal now in developed countries. However, humans are frightened that natural gas supply will eventually run out, like oil and coal. Predictions say that this might take place at the end or the middle of the 21st century. Unlike oil supplies, Natural gas reserves are distributed more uniformly around the planet. Energy produced by combustion of fossil fuels is converted to heat and electricity in power plants. On combustion, carbon and hydrogen reacts with oxygen to yield carbondioxide and water with heat. Electricity is produced by transforming this heat into electrical energy in a generator. Although, building a power plant needs a lot of money, the efficiency it delivers to convert fuel into energy is very high, and is worth the money spent to build it. The demand of electricity varies throughout the year, and provisions should be made to meet the demand in peak load. When the demand surpasses the capacity of power plants to generate electricity, momentary blackouts are experienced. In 2001, California experienced shortage of electricity, drawing attention to the crude oil and natural gas shortage. In the past, fossil fuels were present in abundance and were easy to obtain and deliver. The present trend of using these energy resources by mankind is one of the important issues questioning its long term sustainability. We have created a horrible situation for ourselves, by denying the fact that these resources will not be running low, and trying to run away from the reality rather than facing it. People are afraid of the consequences of what may happen if the fossil fuels actually run out. Fossil fuel combustion contributes to a lot of environmental issues that are also high on political agenda these days. Examples of these issues include emission of greenhouse gases, acid rain, air and water pollution, and ozone at ground level. These environmental concerns are caused by the burning of fossil fuels, which produces impurities like nitrogen, sulphur, and organic volatile compounds. These bi-products influence people and our atmosphere in many harmful ways. Like a glass in a greenh ouse, these pollutants build a barrier and prevent the excess heat from earth to escape. The temperature of the earth increases with the increase in this barrier, resulting in global warming. Global warming has become a serious issue, which could threaten our existence. Have people ever thought that why Antartica experienced the warmest years in all of history? Have people thought of rising sea level, which resulted due to melting of ice? The intensifying sea level could lead in floods and hurricane. If these changes are not enough to alert humans, the effect on agriculture around the world might be frightening. Production of maple is decreased by 10% because of warmer and shorter winters. A study comparing the yields of six main staple crops was done at the Lawrence Livermore National Labs and Stanford university. Study showed that for every one degree rise in temperature, there will be a decline of about 3% to 5% in the yield of those crops. Those six crops is responsible for abou t 55% of non-meat calories consumed by people, and about 70% of the animals feed all over the world. Acid rain is caused by the emission of sulphur and nitrogen, by burning fossil fuels. Acid rain is a combination of dry and wet deposition from the sky which contains higher amounts of nitric acid and sulphuric acid than normal. It makes the lakes and streams acidic, which leads to destruction of trees at higher altitude and soils. Acid rains also contribute to the decay of buildings and sculptures, decreases the visibility and have harmful effects on publics health. Acid rain not only cause damages where it falls, but it affects all over the planet, since lakes and streams transport the water throughout earths crust and finally to the ocean. The plants and animals that are dependent on this water to survive are affected and may decease if the chemicals in the water are present in extreme excess. Another problem resulting from fossil fuel usage is Air pollution, resulting in smog. Apart from human sickness, smog also affects the crops, by seeping through the leaves protective layers and destroying the essential cell membranes. This makes the crops weaker and decreases its yield. Combustion of fossil fuels produces nitrogen and other organic gases that form ozone. Ozone is formed near the surface of the earth causing air pollution. According to the CESI report (2006), Ground level ozone has affected the health of Canadians including respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, premature deaths and over 6000 hospitalizations. All above discussed issues are caused by the emission of impurities that are present in the structures of fossil fuel .Presently, combustion of oil accounts for about 30% of carbondioxide in the environment. The maximum emission of pollutants is caused by the burning of coal. Natural gas consists of methane structure, due to which it doesnt emit as much carbondioxide as compared to oil and coal. The question arises, that looking at these consequences, why are we still using fossil fuels to such large scale? The answer is simple; because fossil fuels are comparatively cheaper than using alternatives we know so far. People have made their lives so much dependable on fuels, that if these run out, the human civilization will come to an end too. Also, digging fossil fuels from earth surface is dangerous, as digging of mines and wells could result in change of surroundings and may fetch immense quantity of salt water to the earths surface, which can result in damaging the ecosystem in clos e proximity with no appropriate treatment and sequestration. There are procedures to follow to minimize the hazards, but it is hard to completely eradicate them. However, regulations are not enough, we should continue researching new technologies for fossil fuels and renewable sources both, to add increasing conservation measures. Few environmentalists predict that because of insufficiency, fuel prices will increase exponentially in the coming century. We cannot completely stop using fossil fuels, but we must make some changes in our consumption pattern by avoiding oil products and favouring available alternatives for our sustainability.

The Foreign Policy Decision Making Politics Essay

The Foreign Policy Decision Making Politics Essay Politic like any other concept in the social science can be defined in various ways and also politics can be said to be universal meaning politics is very were. According to Aristotle man is a political animal. To him every human being belonged to a state and no man could be self-fulfilment outside the state. Individual, when isolated he said is not self-sufficingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ But he who is unable to live in society or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself must be either a beast or a god (Somervill J. and Santoni R. E, 1963, 61,62). As men find themselves in a society they have to make decision for them self or take decision from other making them act in a political manner. One can say that poltics happen in every environment even in the bedroom were the man or the woman has to take certain decisions there. Many scholars try to define politica in their own way, in the book of Robert Dahl Modem political Analysis (1976, 1-12), Harold D. Lasswell defined politics as who gets what, when and how, to David Easton another scholer scholar of poltical science said the discipline concerns itself with the authoritative allocation of values whiles Max Weber a German sociology defines politics as a relationship of power, rule and authority. The common element in these and several other definition of politics and political activity is that they all agree with Aristotle that every society consists of rulers and the ruled. Therefore in every human community there is the present of power, authority or rule. A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. The term is not normally used to denote what is actually done; this is normally referred to as either procedure or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an organization whereas procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by senior executive officers. A policy can be considered as a Statement of Intent or a Commitment. For that reason at least, the decision-makers can be held accountable for their Policy. A policy maker is a person with power to influence or determine policies and practices at an international, national, regional, or local level. It can be said to be the actions and inaction of government, what the government planned to do or not to do. Polity,is used to described a political institution or stureture such as those institution responsible for making the policy or those that the policy pass through before they actual become policies, these include the ministry, department and agancies of a state or government. It can be used to also described a potical system. The process of making policies is some kind of the activity of the granding mill that is how the granding mill operates. We have the machine were u will but your millet or corn inside it for it to grand and it will come out not as millet or core but as flour and when it is well not granded u will put it back into the mill again to grand it until you get a well granded flour. The same apply to policies, here the millet or the corn will be the bill which is influenced mostly by politics and the machinc will be the polity that is the various institution who work on the bill before it becomes a policy and the flour which is the final product will be the outcome that is the policy itself. Just like the granding will machine when the policy is not well done or does not achieve it aim it has to go through the machine again until it suit the country and the people. In the process of making a policy it is affected by several factors such as interest groups, public opinion, media and so on. These factors can be grouped into two forms that is the internal and external environment. These two forms of the environment affect the outcome of a policy or shape the policy outcome. Foreign policy decision making According to Chanan (2002, 2), three main models will be used to built a general model into which the role of the media can be seen. The focus of these models is recognizing the environment as major input of foreign policy decision making processes. In explaining these three models chanan made used of scholarly work. According Snyder et al. (1969:203), Decision makers act upon and respond to conditions and factors that exist outside them and the governmental organization of which they are a part. Setting has two aspects: external and internal. . Setting is really a set of categories of potentially relevant factors and conditions that may affect the action of any state These authors describe the internal setting as a human environment composed of culture and population and include public opinion (Snyder et al., 1969:201; 203). If we adopt a revised perspective on this setting, the media may be a major component of this environment. It can be described as the tool which expresses the non-governmental interpretations and expectations of the various members or groups of the society as described in Snyders model (Snyder et al., 1969:204), as well as a tool to express government policy in state-owned or dominated media. Michael Brecher developed a much more detailed framework for foreign policy decision-making analysis, and he incorporated the media explicitly as the communication network within the political system which enables the flow of information about the operational environment to the incumbent elite (Brecher, 1972:11; 183-207). Brechers framework is environmental in its design, and he believes that: The foreign policy system comprises an environment or setting. The operational environment defines the setting in which foreign policy decisions are taken. The concept of setting refers to a set of potentially relevant factors and conditions, which may affect a states external behaviour. The operational environment thus sets the parameters or boundaries within which decision-makers must act. (Brecher,1972:2-4). But Brecher, like the other authors, does not incorporate the media explicitly as one of the input variables of the foreign policy decision-making process. By input variable I mean an external factor, part of the international environment. Perceiving the media as an input variable means understanding its role in influencing society and politics, in agenda setting and in constructing reality. Brecher and the other scholars of foreign policy see the media in a narrower way, as a channel through which the operational environment can have an impact on the foreign policy process. This impact exists only to the extent that it is communicated to the elite. Information may be communicated in a variety of ways: the mass media press, books, radio, and TV (Brecher, 1972:10). Brecher and Snyder (et al.), and later Papadakis and Starr perceive the media as an internal component of the process, a channel to deliver messages from the diplomatic-political-security environment to the leaders. Such media, as information channels, have a minimal role in influencing leaders and their decisions. The broader perspective, which does not exist in the international relations literature, suggests that the media are part of the external-international environment which influences policy, and perceives the press and TV as external components or sources, as an input variable which drives decision processes as the other external input variables of the environment (i.e., regional power structure, other actors economic capabilities, etc.). In a more subtle way, the media may be seen not only as part of the international environment, but also as part of the internal environment of the state. In the state the media are not just information channels, they form a communication network influencing policy from within the state, as well as the party system, interest groups or the socio-economic stratification of society. A third environmental foreign policy decision-making model was developed by Papadakis and Starr (1987) to analyze the process in small states, but it is relevant to dealing with other states as well. The environment which forms the input for the policy-making process is described as a structure of opportunities, risks, and potential costs and benefits, constraining the decision makers (Russett and Starr, 1992:21). The authors did not incorporate the mass media into their model, neither as forming part of the societal level of environment, nor as part of the opportunities or constraints internally influencing a government in its foreign policy decision-making process it should be noted that all these models see the role of the image as an important mechanism in the decision-making process which is also strongly influenced by the media (Brecher, 1972, 11-13; Elitzur, 1986;Vertzberger, 1990). The image is a the total cognitive, affective, and evaluative structure of the behavior unit, or its internal view of itself and the universe (Boulding in Brecher, 1972:13). According to Chanan (2002,6) The media have a twofold role in the environment., they first provide input into the process as an independent variable added to environments described in the former models of Snyder et al., Brecher and Papadakis and Starr. Here the leaders react to the perceived reality as constructed by the press and take it into consideration. The second one is that it is part of the environment which foreign policy makers try to affect or influence by making their decisions. This implies that these leaders who perform in an environment which includes the media take political decisions to solve problems, but at the same time they try to make such decisions that will improve their image or develop a campaign that will affect the media dealing with the relevant international events and interactions. This is he said is the output environment component of the environment. The effect of the media on foreign policies Making The effects of the media on foreign policy decision making can be seen in two (2) fold or it is a double-enged saw. At one enged or side the media is seen as an input variable influencing foreign policy decision making process and at the other enged or side it is seen as an output variable, which compels leaders to relate to it in their decisions ( chanan 2002:7) One way through which the media effect foreign policy decision making process is through agenda settings. Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton (1971) in their work gave the social role of the media as Status-Conferral function. To Lazarsfeld and Merton ( 1971:560-561) this role means the mass media confer status on public issues, persons, organizations, and social movements. Common experience as well as research testifies that the social standing of persons or social policies is raised when these command favorable attention in the mass media. The mass media bestow prestige and enhance the authority of individuals and groups by legitimizing their status In trying to look at the role of the media in foreign policy decision process, Bernard cohen (1963) made used of this idea. To Cohen ( 1963:12-13), It is here, in the description of the political environment and the suggestion of the policy alternatives that give the best promise of managing the environment, that we shall find the press playing such an important role in current thinking about foreign policy. This map-making function of the press is so central to the real impact of the press in the foreign policy field that a few words of elaboration may be appropriate. . Cohen (1963, 177) went on to say that For most of the foreign policy audience, the really effective political map of the world that is to say, their operational map of the world is drawn by the reporter and the editor, not by the cartographer. The press.. may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about. The last statement is the basis for agenda setting approach, which is mostly related to Maxwell McCombs (1972; 1981). McCombs (1972;177) stated that, While the mass media may have little influence on the direction or intensity of attitudes, it is hypothesized that the mass media set the agenda for each political campaign, influencing the salience of attitudes toward the political issues McQuail (1994:356-357) presented this approach as a four-fold hypothesis: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Public debate is represented by salient issues (an agenda for action) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The agenda derives from a combination of public opinion and political choice. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Mass media news and information reflect the content and order the priority of issues à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ This representation of issues in the mass media exerts an independent effect on issue content and on relative salience in public opinion. The mass media is greatly relied upon to keep the public and government apprised of crucial developments and events on the world stage as they unfold. Most times, the only source of information available to the public is the media and as such, the media forms the basis of views and opinions on world events and issues as it massively influences public opinion thereby setting the agenda for government policy. The media has become an instrument of power that influences government policies and can surpass national boundaries; the media through agenda setting makes issues somewhat important to the public, and the policy makers to take action (Tumber and palmer, 2004). The rise in the availability of real-time news cause policy makers to react swiftly than before to public opinion. This influence of the media on the public or government could be achieved by either impacting on the public who in turn will put pressure on the governments to make certain decisions considered therefore as an indirect influence on policy making, or by creating an impression on the policy makers themselves thereby prompting them to action. The media played a role in influencing the war in Iraq. Saddam Husseins ability to acquire and produce weapons of mass destruction (WMD), his cruel and inhumane acts to his own people, using chemical agents on his people is enough evidence to prove his ability to use WMD on an enemy or opponent (Mazarr, 2007). However, this was not the only reason the United States relied on to take a unilateral decision to invade Iraq and oust the dictator. Certainly, the media played an important role in conveying the message to the public. It easily used information concerning Saddam Hussein atrocities to prompt US public opinion and defend President Bushs stand to wage war against Iraq. The congress of the United States was also influenced by the information transmitted by the media as the resolution to go to war with Iraq was deliberated in front of millions of viewers. The presidents decision to go to war was justified by the media through the messages communicated to the public. Although it could be argued that the decision was already made in advance, but the media was used to capture successfully the deliberations of the US congress. The media made sure that the American public saw and heard continuously about the evil to be confronted so as to enhance the safety of the world. Framing The media construct reality with another tool, called framing. This technique is important, since any political conflict centers on the struggle over interpretive frames (Wolfsfeld, 1993, xiii; Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 13-30, 31-35, Scheufele, 1999,103-122). In this process, the media transform the nature of events through formats, which constitute ideological or value perspectives in which the media focus on story lines, symbols, and relevant stereotypes (Entman, 1991; Entman and Rojecki, 1993; Entman and Page, 1994; Iyengar and Simon, 1994, 171). The evidence indicates that individuals views of national issues are altered by the way in which television news frames them (Iyengar, 1994, 141). Therefore, in the competition over media frames some relevant factors should be analyzed, such as the ways in which political actors are referred to; and nuances of the use of language (e.g., in headlines) (Roeh and Nir, 1993, 178-180; Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 49). Finally, framing is the process in which the media create the images that reflect and filter reality in the foreign policy decision-making processes. The media as an output environment We are now going to look at the media as an output variable. We are going to see the role of the media as part of the environment which foreign policy makers try to affect or influence when making decisions. To chanan (2002;8) this means that leaders who perform in an environment which includes the media make political decisions to solve problems, but at the same time try to make decisions that will improve their image or develop a campaign that will affect the media that deal with the relevant international events and interactions. The media management How do the leaders (and their media advisors) join foreign-policy decisions with considerations that take into account the media environment? How do they try to affect the media to reflect a favorable attitude, or to frame their side of the story in an international conflict? This is achieved by media management (MM), defined with the common term spin. The processes of utilizing the media are varied and apply to national as well to foreign policies (Gergen, 1991; Ben Eliyahu, 1993; Cook, 1998; Kurtz, 1998; Paletz, 1998; Pfetsch, 1998). These policies can range from initiating coverage to government-arranged censorship; from classifying information and data to pooling journalists (see figure 4). Moreover, journalists may be restricted in their movement, accredited selectively, or favored by leaders according to their positive-supportive coverage. Administrations and governments who need the media to cover their political activities and their foreign policy should promote give and take relations with the press. Who is in Charge? In managing the media covering decision-making, governments use professionals, public relations specialists or marketing professionals. These professionals work together with the ministerial level and alongside the spokespersons in charge of media relations in the relevant offices. Furthermore, they consider allowing these spokespersons and even some of the professionals to be present at the decision-making process. The optimal method is allowing them to be involved in the processes and contribute their professional input. MM or spin techniques are used on the diplomatic front to promote peace processes, as well as in times of conflict and war. When foreign policy decisions are made, or peace policies are adopted, governments may accompany these policies with threefold PR strategies toward the media. Foreign policy officials (and their media advisors) can disregard or ignore the press (e.g., not convey any message to the media); they can try to develop a spin (as explained earlier); or they can adopt a policy that is only media-oriented (e.g., only publishing public announcements without any real political action). By choosing any of these options, a government influences the media by regulating the flow of information. It is trying to affect the political environment through the media while competing with the opposing political powers, who try to influence the media as well. When governments succeed in taking control of diplomatic events and enjoy a high degree of public consensus, the news media become supportive, and the role of the PR professionals is intended to preserve and promote this support. But when a government loses control over the political-diplomatic process, the media become independent and critical (Wolfsfeld, 1997a, 25; Wolfsfeld, 1997b, 30-34). In this negative political environment, the role of MM professionals is more complex, and they try influence the media to change their attitude and be less critical, more understanding and even supportive. In the diplomatic-cooperative arenas of international relations, leaders use the media to keep options open and at the same time to build consensus (Ben Eliyahu, 1993; Cook, 1998; Kurtz, 1998; Paletz, 1998; Pfetsch, 1998). Here, the media, by setting policy agendas and stimulating popular support for policies, provide tools for leaders to assert control. Moreover, a leaders staff can utilize the media to deliver specific messages to specific audiences (Gergen, 1991, 55-56; OHeffernan, 1991, 62-67, 105-112; OHeffernan, 1994, 242). In addition, the medias role as a promoter of public debates on policy issues can be used as a tool to gain support and tilt public opinion (Hindell, 1995; Powlick and Katz, 1998, 29-61; Weiman, 1994, 291-307). In order to achieve the best results in these processes, leaders and their MM professional advisors may use various diplomatic channels with regard to the media. They can decide to keep diplomatic interactions secret, hidden behind closed doors or made public (Gilboa, 1998a, 211-225; Gilboa 1998b,56-75) and work with the media accordingly.

Much Ado About Nothing Essay: The Importance of Word Choice :: Much Ado About Nothing Essays

Much Ado About Nothing:   The Importance of Word Choice  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      The choice of words used by the characters in Act 5, Scene 1, of the play, Much Ado About Nothing, clearly presents the characters emotions and constructs their characters for the audience. In contrast to his confrontation with Claudio and Don Pedro earlier in the scene, where he is reduced to begging them to hear him out ('My lord, my lord!'; Act 5, Scene 1; l. 106 ), Leonato's speeches are marked with a stateliness and self-assurance, as he has been fortified with the knowledge that his righteous indignation is justified. He is stern and dominates the scene, barking orders 'Which is the villain?' (l. 260), 'Bring you these fellows on.' (l. 333), and using the conversation to entrap, as Claudio and Don Pedro did to him during the aborted wedding: Art thou the slave that with thy breath hast killed mine innocent child?. No, not so, villain! Thou beliest thyself. Here stand a pair of honourable men; A third is fled, that had a hand in it. I thank you, princes, for my daughter's death. His true purpose is manifested to the audience in the way he addresses the prince and Claudio: this time he doesn't bluntly insult them, but uses more subtle language - 'Record [Hero's death] with your high and worthy deeds. 'Twas bravely done, if you bethink you of it.'(l. 270-271) - because he intends to perform one last deception, to get Claudio to marry Hero, so his strategy must be to play on their guilt, not to antagonize them: '.since you could not be my son-in-law, Be yet my nephew. And so dies my revenge' (l. 288-289, 293). He seems to see himself as the rightful patriarch, restoring order - '.This naughty man Shall face to face be brought to Margaret, Who I believe was packed in all this wrong, Hired to it by your brother.' (l. 298-301) - and his speeches have an air of stateliness and dignity (all are in verse), as well as an air of busyness, exemplified in the orders he gives, lines 280-294: Possess the people in Messina here How innocent she died; and if your love Can labor aught in sad invention, Hang her an epitaph upon her tomb, And sing it to her bones, sing it tonight. Tomorrow morning come you to my house. The emotion of earlier in the scene seems to have been spent - this meeting can be seen as Leonato's personal revenge, restoring his authority and reputation: his fatherly concern about Hero's reputation is no longer necessary, her name is merely an instrument to shame the princes.

Latino Gangs in Movies Essay -- Movies Films Gangs Violence Essays

Latino Gangs in Movies American filmmakers of the late twentieth century portrayed Latinos as merciless pursuers of the "American Dream". The Latino immigrants were characterized as "Urban Bandidos", seeking the path to ultimate wealth and power in a society dominated by Anglo authority. West Side Story, Fort Apache, and Scarface each portrayed the Latino character differently, but commonly depicted the "Urban Bandido" as a man in search of money and power in America. Not only do these immigrants fight for the warped American dream, but they often fight without fear, willing to risk almost anything to reach the top. In West Side Story, the Puerto Rican gang known as the Sharks always gets blamed for the conflicts that arise between the two groups. The Latino males are depicted as violent and angry, while the senoritas are portrayed as submissive and willing to assimilate into the anglo-governed society. The popular musical presents American audiences with the idea of interracial relationships in a society that looks down upon the mixing of cultures. Tony and Maria refuse to ignore their undying love for each other, and put that devotion before all other beliefs and concerns about their opposing social groups. As the two gangs fight for territory, Tony and Maria fight to make their friends understand that it doesn't have to be a "space†¦impregnated with cultural symbols and political significations for the relations, interactions, and social actions according to the "American Way of Life" (Sandoval, 167). Fort Apache conveys the image of a society where Anglos are the strong, heroic force and the Latinos take a submissive, incompetent role in the urban life. Paul Newman plays the white cop, displaying his hero... ...es to gaining the most material wealth possible. The Anglo characters of these late 20th century films play the role of the "good guy", always appearing when the need for a hero or savior arises. Overall, American audiences do not see a great change in the presentation of Latino characters in the storyline. They are portrayed negatively through time, although in the more recent films, the Latino is more of a violent, greedy druglord in place of the typical greaser or bandit that we are accustomed to seeing. The stereotypes remain present through the second half of the century, identifying Latinos as dark, violent, inferior bandits, and the Latinas as weak, unintelligible, sexual objects. It seems as though the American cinema has no intention of introducing the world to a more accurate representation of Latinos and Latinas even as we approach the end of the century.

Advice - Is it Better to Give than to Receive? Essay -- Personal Narra

Advice - Is it Better to Give than to Receive? Advice and the language it’s given in can work only if the person in need of it can handle what is being said to them and accept it. Otherwise it just goes in one ear and out the other. Advice to me needs to be spoken in a calm and rational way or I tend not to listen to it. It can be advice from parents, relatives, friends, colleagues, or just about anyone, even myself. Advice given to me when I was younger was a lot different than when I got older. I tended not to listen to my parents. At nine and ten, they gave me an allowance. I saw it as money to run out and spend on candy. They saw it as a learning opportunity and a chance to instill a value system in me. At first I didn’t take the advice, in fact it took years to realize the im...

Studies Related To Teaching Competency Education Essay

Aggarwal ( 1969 ) conducted a survey on measuring of competency of instructors of primary schools of M.P. the survey revealed ( I ) more than 53 % of instructors were non intelligent plenty to be instructors and intelligence was significantly and positively related to capable cognition ( r= 0.42 ) ( two ) out of entire primary instructors 52.6 % did non like learning profession and their attitude was significantly related to competences of schoolroom instruction and ( three ) 70 % of the instructors passed in the 3rd division and about 50 % instructors did non possess equal cognition of topic to be able to learn competent. George and Anand ( 1980 ) studied the consequence of microteaching on learning self- construct and learning competency of pupil instructors. The chief findings of the survey were ( I ) There was important difference between the pre- trial and post- trial mean learning self concept tonss of the control group of pupil instructors. ( two ) There was important difference between the pre- trial and post- trial mean learning self concept tonss of the experimental group of pupil instructors. ( three ) There was important difference between the average addition tonss in learning competency of the control group and experimental group of pupil instructors. ( four ) Micro- instruction facilitated the sweetening of the learning ego construct of pupil instructors. ( V ) Micro learning proved effectual in bettering the learning competency of pupil instructors. ( six ) Micro- instruction intervention followed by summated scheme of integrating of learning accomplishments was found superior to micro learning intervention based on independent learning accomplishments in bettering the learning competency of pupil instructors. Passi and Sharma ( 1982 ) studied learning competences of secondary school instructors in Indore. The findings of survey showed that ( I ) the competences identified were- giving assignments, loud reading, utilizing chalkboard, utilizing support, tempo, avoiding repeat, consolidating the lesson, covering with pupil responses, bettering students ‘ behaviour, audibleness, utilizing secondary support, acknowledging students ‘ go toing behaviour, showing verbal manner and switching centripetal channel. ( two ) male and female instructors did non differ in competence. There was a important negative correlativity between the self perceptual experience of linguistic communication instructors and learning competence. ( three ) there was a important positive relationship between instructors ‘ instruction competence and liking of their students of their instruction behavior. Patel ( 1984 ) found that interactions with co-workers could better learning competence. His survey involved eight scientific discipline instructors spread over a period of six months and noted that the treatments and counsel from co-workers resulted in 11 % addition in the capacity for presentation and capacity for co- ordination of different learning accomplishments, in ability and wont of utilizing audio- ocular AIDSs for effectual instruction and addition in involvement in practical and written work of the student, and a 10 % addition in cognition of content. Prakasham ( 1988 ) studied the instructor effectivity as a map of school organisational clime and instruction competence and found that ( I ) The unfastened school organisational clime positively affected both the instruction competence every bit good as instructor effectivity. ( two ) Teachers of urban schools significantly excelled over instructors employed either in semi- urban and rural schools or schools located in industrial countries on both learning competence and instructor effectivity. ( three ) Females scored constantly higher with and undistinguished difference in all types of schools ; categorizes in footings of district, direction type and organisational clime. ( four ) There existed a important relationship between learning competence and instructor effectivity. Rajguru ( 1988 ) conducted a survey of the function of schoolmasters of cardinal schools and primary corporation schools to propose redresss to better their competences. He found that ( I ) 64.5 % instructors were cognizant of their functions. ( two ) 28 schoolmasters said that they observed 90.3 % of lesson and arranged theoretical account lessons besides. ( three ) Central schools schoolmasters guided the primary school schoolmasters in their work and besides visited them on a regular basis. ( four ) They besides arranged seminars and workshops. However, they were non satisfied with the lesson observation work. This work was evaluated by the supervisor but there was no cooperation between them. ( V ) Each cardinal school schoolmasters had to work for 45 hours in a hebdomad. Teaching was for 12 hours, lesson observation for 18 hours and 25 hours for other activities. Choudhary ( 1990 ) investigated the relationship of the learning competences of 178 secondary school instructors with the student accomplishment. Teachers ‘ manner of structuring inquiries was of import in act uponing students ‘ wishing for instructors. Their instruction was observed on at least four separate occasions during 3 months of learning in schools. No important positive relationship was found between the positive attitude towards general pedagogical principals and any of the instruction competence. A hebdomad negative relationship was obtained between instructors ‘ attitude and relationship with kids. It was suggested that the fosterage of positive attitudes in pre- service instruction, pupil instructors towards general pedagogical rules, on the footing of patterns aimed at heightening students ‘ academic accomplishment might consequences in lower quality instruction because of its inauspicious consequence on pupil- instructors relationship. Bassi and Kaur ( 1991 ) conducted a survey of the learning competence of linguistic communication instructors in relation to their job- satisfaction, venue of control and professional burnout. He found that ( I ) Language instructors had a moderate sense of personal achievement and success, and so they did non see any professional burnout. ( two ) There was no difference between the instruction competence and occupation satisfaction of the instructors on the footing of venue of control. ( three ) Female instructors, urban school linguistic communication instructors were found more externally controlled and satisfied with their occupations than the rural and high school linguistic communication instructors. ( four ) There existed a positive correlativity between the step of occupation satisfaction and the standard steps of learning competence, professional burnout variables and standard steps of learning competence. Thiagarajan et. Al. ( 1995 ) studied the relationship between instructor competence as perceived by pupils and accomplishment in Economics as a map of sex. Findingss revealed a important correlativity between learning competence and accomplishment. The magnitude of correlativity was different in male childs and misss. Kaushal ( 2001 ) while analyzing the effectivity of schoolroom oppugning behavior preparation on a sample of 40 pupil instructors which every bit measured in footings of alteration in the schoolroom oppugning behaviour of pupil instructors and sweetening in learning competency reported that CQBT helps in heightening the learning competence of pupil instructors of experimental group as compared to command group of pupil instructors. Farah ( 2002 ) studied in his comparative survey of learning competences of the instructors trained through the formal system of instruction and those through the distance instruction system. The findings indicate that there is no important difference between the cognition and attitudes of instructors trained through distance manner and those trained through the formal system terminal there is a important relationship between the attitudes and accomplishments of instructors. Pushpam and Sourdarajan ( 2004 ) conducted a survey of learning competence of secondary school instructors and found that ( I ) instructors working in assisted and matriculation schools have better learning competence than instructors working in govt. and corporation schools. ( two ) The learning competence of more experient instructors is better than the teaching competence of less experient. ( three ) Aged and high income govt. instructors have better instruction competence. ( four ) Private unaided school instructors have better instruction competence and station alumnus have better learning competence than the alumnus instructors. ( V ) Permanent instructors show better learning competence than impermanent instructors. ( six ) Teachers with high income have better learning competence than instructors with low income. ( seven ) No difference was found between rural and urban school instructors sing their instruction competence. ( eight ) Positive attitude of instructors towards le arning profession, occupation satisfaction of instructors and intelligence of pupils increase the learning competences of secondary school instructors. Shokeen ( 2006 ) studied the consequence of schoolroom oppugning behavior preparation on learning competence of pupil instructors and their ego construct and found that the experimental group pupil instructors asked more inquiries in their schoolroom as compared to the control group. The CQBT was found to be a better scheme than the conventional programme, of pupil instruction as learning competence of pupil instructors was enhanced after CQBT. It was besides found that CQBT was non merely effectual in bettering the schoolroom oppugning behaviour of pupil instructors, but it besides helps in bettering their ego construct. The overall appraisal points towards the ultimate effectivity of CQBT and it provides a theoretical account for proof of instructor. Smriti ( 2008 ) conducted a survey of creativeness in relation to learning competence of B.Ed. pupils and found that ( I ) There is no important difference between the creativeness of B.Ed. pupils belonging to rural and urban background. Therefore it is concluded that creativeness is non being affected by country or part. ( two ) There is no important difference between the creativeness of male and female B.Ed. pupils. Hence creativeness is non being affected by gender. ( three ) There is no important difference between the creativeness of B.Ed. pupils belonging to scientific discipline and humanistic disciplines watercourse. Therefore it is concluded that creativeness is non being affected by topics studied by pupils. ( four ) There is positive correlativity between creativeness and learning competence of B.Ed. pupils. Augustine, J. ( 2010 ) studied the ‘Teaching Aptitude, Competency, Academic background and Achievement in Educational Psychology of Student- instructors in the college of instruction. ‘ A sample of 200 pupil instructors selected from 5 colleges of instruction in Kottayam Revenue territory of Kerala was used. The findings of the survey showed that ( I ) There is important positive relationship between learning competence and learning aptitude of pupil instructors. ( two ) There is no consistent positive relationship between academic background and learning aptitude of pupil instructors. ( three ) There is no important positive relationship between learning aptitude and accomplishment in educational psychological science. Khatoon, Azeem and Akhtar ( 2011 ) studied the impact of different factors on learning competences at secondary degree in Pakistan. The survey investigated in to a descriptive research to critically reexamine of the impact of different factors on learning competences at secondary degree. The survey has defined female school instructor ‘s socio cultural jobs and environmental jobs.The chief aims of the survey were to happen out the female school instructors, socio cultural jobs, and Environment jobs and to mensurate the instruction competence of instructors by relationship between instructors and pupils. The undermentioned consequences were drawn by the research worker in the visible radiation of the analysis of the information. The largely households are in favours of female instructor ‘s occupation. The consequence proves that the female save the clip for domestic work due to hold half twenty-four hours occupation. The consequence proves that professional green-eyed mons ter is everyplace and largely it effects on their instruction competence. Kavita ( 2011 ) studied the consequence of schoolroom oppugning behavior preparation on learning competence of pupil instructors, attitude towards learning and their ego construct. A close analysis of the consequences indicates that the CQBT was found to be better scheme, than the conventional programme, of pupil instruction as learning competency of pupil instructors was enhanced after CQBT. It was besides found that CQBT was non merely effectual in bettering the schoolroom inquiring of pupil instructors, but it besides helps in bettering their ego construct. The overall appraisal points towards the ultimate effectivity of CQBT and it provides a theoretical account for proof of instructor. Pawar, I.A. ( 2011 ) studied the ‘Impact of Teacher Training on Teacher Competencies ‘ . The findings of the survey showed that ( I ) There is no important difference between the average tonss on instructor competences graduated table of instructors who have trained through conventional and that of those instructors who have done instructor preparation through distance instruction manner in footings of their cognition and attitude. ( two ) There is no important difference between the average tonss on instructor competences graduated table of male and female instructors who have trained through conventional every bit good as distance manner.Surveies related to Psychological Capital:Luthans and Youssef ( 2004 ) found that Authentic leaders ‘ assurance, hope and optimism roots from their strong beliefs in themselves, in their positive psychological capital and in doing clear to associates precisely what they need from them in order to accomplish sustainable growing and public presentation at single, squad, and/or organisational degrees. Such leaders besides recognize that they have failings, which they work to suit by environing themselves with highly capable followings and constructing an inclusive and engaged positive organisational context. Such contexts support followings for being actively involved in executing their occupation functions and duties, every bit good as in lending to the leader ‘s ain development. Lifeng, Z. ( 2007 ) studied the ‘Effects of Psychological Capital on Emplyoees ‘ occupation public presentation, organizational committedness and organisational citizenship behaviour. ‘ The consequence of the survey showed that after commanding for the demographic variables ( gender and age ) , emplyoees ‘ hope, optimism and resilience individually had positive impacts on their occupation public presentation, organisational committedness and organisational behaviour. Employees ‘ psychological capital ( a combined concept of hope, optimism and resilience ) had positive impacts on their occupation public presentation, organisational committedness and organisational citizenship behaviour. To sum up, this survey through empirical observation tested the positive relationship between psychological capital employees ‘ results. The research consequences indicated psychological capital had positive impacts on employees ‘ public presentation. Luthans, Norman, Avolio, et.al. , ( 2008 ) conducted a survey on ‘ The mediating function of psychoogical capital in the supportive organisational climate- employee public presentation relationship. ‘ The survey investigates whether the late emerging nucleus concept of positive psychological capital ( dwelling os hope, resiliency, optimism and efficaciousness ) plays s function in interceding the effects of a supportive organisational clime with employee results. Using 3 diverse samples, consequences shows that employees ‘ psychological capital is positively related to their public presentation, satisfaction, committedness and a supportive clime is related to employees ‘ satisfaction and committedness. Avey, Luthans and Youssef ( 2008 ) studied ‘The Additive Value of Positive Psychological Capital in Predicting Work Attitudes and Behaviors ‘ . This survey of a sample of employees ( N=336 ) from a wide cross subdivision of organisations and occupations found that their state-like psychological capital is positively related to desired extra-role organisational citizenship behaviours ( OCBs ) and negatively with unsought organisational cynicism, purposes to discontinue and counterproductive workplace behaviours. Except for single OCBs, their psychological capital besides predicted alone discrepancy in the same attitudinal and behavioural results beyond their demographics, nucleus self-evaluation, and personality traits, and person-organization tantrum and person-job tantrum. Avey, Luthans and Jensen ( 2009 ) studied the Psychological Capital: A Positive Resource for Combating Employees Stress and Turnover. The findings of the survey were ( I ) There was negative relationship between positive psychological capital and emphasis symptoms. ( two ) There was negative relationship between psychological capital and purposes to discontinue and occupation hunt behaviours severally. ( three ) Symptoms of emphasis would partly intercede the relationship between the psychological capital and both purposes to discontinue and occupation hunt behaviours. Mathur and Tiwari ( 2011 ) studied the Positive Psychology Capital, E.Q. , and S.Q. as determiner of subjective well-being in executive adult females and found that subjective well being is every bit and strongly influenced by several factors but the major 1s include positive psychological capital, E.Q. and S.Q. It is apprehensible that individuals who have properties of positive psychological capital, E.Q. and S.Q. can successfully get by with emphasiss of life and such emphasiss are perceived as chances instead than challenges. Based on these observations, it can be concluded that Psychological Capital, Emotional and Spiritual Intelligence play a important function in the care of Subjective Well Being in executive adult females. It can be indirectly assumed that these adult females must besides be really high on self- efficaciousness, resiliency, optimism and hope. Ravindranath ( 2011 ) explained the Life accomplishments as an attack in psychological capital in life and work scenes. He discussed that an intercession like life accomplishment s preparation are comprehensive including assorted countries like thought, behaviour and emotions. The concluding marks being self- consciousness, self- regard and accepting of others. In an person, life accomplishments develop over the old ages continuously in an active mode. There are many accomplishments, which are needed to successfully negociate each and every interaction. Expected learning results include a combination of cognition, values, attitudes and accomplishments with a peculiar accent on those accomplishments that are related to critical thought, and job resolution, self direction and communicating and inter- personal accomplishments. Further more life accomplishments evolved as a consequence of mental well being and wellness, so life accomplishments can be considered as an intercession scheme in positive psychological science and wellness. Kaur ( 2012 ) studied the occupation satisfaction of secondary school instructors in relation to psychological capital. She found that ( I ) there was negative negligible relationship between occupation satisfaction and psychological capital of secondary school instructors. ( two ) There was negative negligible relationship between occupation satisfaction and psychological capital of govt. secondary school instructors. ( three ) There was negative negligible relationship between occupation satisfaction and psychological capital of private secondary school instructors. ( four ) There was negative negligible relationship between occupation satisfaction and psychological capital of male secondary school instructors. ( V ) There was negative negligible relationship between occupation satisfaction and psychological capital of female secondary school instructors.Surveies Related to Religious Intelligence:Vaughan ( 2002 ) discussed that Spiritual intelligence is concerned with the interior life of head and spirit and its relationship with being in the universe. Religious intelligence implies a capacity for a deep apprehension of experiential inquiries and an penetration into multiple degrees of consciousness. Religious intelligence besides implies consciousness of spirit as the land of being or as the originative life force of development. If the development of life from stardust to mineral, veggie, animate being, and human being implies some signifier of intelligence instead than being a strictly random procedure, it might be called religious. Religious intelligence emerges as consciousness evolves into an ever-deepening consciousness of affair, life, organic structure, head, psyche, and spirit. Religious intelligence, so, is more than single mental ability. It appears to link the personal to the transpersonal and the ego to spirit. It goes beyond conventional psychological development. In add-on to self-awareness, it implies consciousness of our relationship to the transcendent, to each other, to the Earth and all existences. As a clinical psychologist, he farther explains that †spiritual intelligence opens the bosom, illuminates the head, and inspires the psyche, linking the single human mind to the underlying land of being. Religious intelligence can be developed with pattern and can assist a individual distinguish world from semblance. It may be expressed in any civilization as love, wisdom, and service. † Mahajan ( 2011 ) studied the Academic Achievement in relation to Emotional Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence. A sample of 140 pupils analyzing in category Eleven from four schools of Hoshiarpur was taken for the aggregation of informations. The technique employed was multistage randomisation of bunchs at school and subdivision degree. B- Variate coefficients and t- ratios were used to analyze the information. The findings were- ( I ) There exists no important difference between the emotional intelligence of male childs and misss. ( two ) There exists no important difference between the religious intelligence of male childs and misss. ( three ) There exists positive and important relationship between academic accomplishment and emotional intelligence of male childs and misss. Besides the relationship was found positive and important for male childs and misss individually. ( four ) There exists positive and important relationship between academic accomplishment and Religious Inte lligence of male childs and misss. Besides the relationship was found positive and important for male childs and misss individually. ( V ) There exists positive and important relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence of male childs and misss. Jeloudar and Goodarzi ( 2012 ) examined the relationship between instructors religious intelligent and their occupation satisfaction index at senior secondary schools degree. Participants were 177 pedagogues who completed the religious Intelligence Scale ( ECI ) , and a version of the Job Descriptive Index is a graduated table used to mensurate six major factors associated with occupation satisfaction based on a selected demographic variable. The findings of the survey showed that there were important relationship between instructors ‘ religious intelligence and their occupation satisfaction. The survey besides revealed that there was important difference found between instructors ‘ religious intelligence and their academic degrees. Further there were important relationship was found between instructors ‘ religious intelligence and five factors of occupation satisfaction: ( nature of the work itself, attitudes towards supervisors, dealingss with colleagues, chances for publicity, work status in the present environment ) , but no important relationship with one factor ( salary and benefit ) of occupation satisfaction. Rastgar, Davoudi and Oraji ( 2012 ) conducted a survey in Mazandaran, a state in North of Iran, and aimed to analyse the function of emplyoees ‘ religious intelligence in perceptual experience of organisational justness. There were 1100 forces in Mellat bank. A sum of 366 questionnaire were distributed among the bank forces and 288 filled questionnaires were returned. The factor analysis and findings show that emplyoees ‘ religious intelligence has a important positive influence on perceptual experience of organisational justness. This determination implied that the higher the degree of emplyoees ‘ religious intelligence, tended to increase the degree of employees ; perceptual experience of organisational justness.

Magna Carta for Students Essay

EXPLANATORY NOTE One of the biggest foundations of a progressive nation is an educated population. Development in the different areas of knowledge such a science and technology, business, medicine, social science and others have brought about drastic advancement in our present society. In an increasingly demanding and dynamic global economy, competitiveness, more than an advantage, is a must. As expressed in the Philippine Constitution, education is one of the priorities of the State. Aside from the basic needs such as food, shelter and clothing, it is one of the primary necessities that the State should provide for its constituents. While the private sector is an active participant in the promotion of education at present, the governrnent should still lead in ensuring its quality and accessibility. It should be recognized that the full development of the students is not dependent merely on books and lectures. Aside from providing them with an environment conductive to learning, it is the duty of the State to ensure the quality of education that goes beyond the corners of the classroom; for indeed the true lessons in life are gained in the real world. However, the present formal educational system has, in one way or another, deprived the students of the chance to develop their full potential. This Magna Carta for Students intends to equalize the chance of the students to admission in school and to avail of competent and quality education. It seeks to provide measures to ensure that the students are able to exercise their rights to organize, right to participate in policy-making, right to academic freedom, and right to free expression and information. For these reasons, the passage of this bill is earnestly sought. Senator FIFTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES First Regular Session ) ) ) HI SENATE Senate Bill No. JUl. -8 A9 :(). :i 911 INTRODUCED BY SEN. JINGGOY EJERCITO ESTRADA AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MAGNA CARTA OF STUDENTS Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled: SECTION 1. Students†. Title. This Act shall be known as the â€Å"Magna Carta of CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of the State to promote and protect the rights of students to enable them to participate actively and effectively in the democratic processes of effective progressive and developmental changes in society. SEC. 3. Guiding Principles. This Act declares the following as basic guiding principles: (a) The formal educational system being the principal institutional mechanism for imparting knowledge and developing skills is given priority attention and support by the govemment. Education is a right and not a mere privilege. It is therefore the responsibility of the State to provide quality education accessible at all curriculum levels. Student organizations enhance democratic processes on the campus. Membership and active which promote and protect students’ rights and welfare andor contribute to national development shall be guaranteed by the State and school authorities. Student organizations shall not be subject to rules and regulations that unduly hamper their activities and are prejudicial to their objectives and interests, provided such objectives, activities and interests are with the school’s mission. Student councils’governments being the most representative of the studentry and the highest expression of student power on campus shall be consulted in the formulation of school policies directly affecting students. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) . (g) Student publication shall serve as a principal, medium for free and responsible expression, dissemination of information, and interaction, among the different sectors of the academic community . With their democratic rights guaranteed, students can serve as a potent and cogent force in the country’s social transformation. SEC. 4. Definition of Terms. As used in this Act, the following terms shall mean: (a) â€Å"Student† – any person enrolled in school in post secondary, tertiary, graduate and post graduate levels, including vocational and technical education. â€Å"School† – any private, public or government-run and funded academic educational institution offering any or all courses in the above-mentioned levels. â€Å"School campus† – the totality of all contiguous or proximate buildings, grounds and other facilities designed by the school as areas or facilities for the use of its students. â€Å"Governing Board† – the highest policy making body of the school such as: Board of Directors, Trustees or Regents. â€Å"Student Council/Government† – the body representing the whole student population in one school or school campus whose officers are annually elected at large by the whole student population pursuant to its constitution and by-laws, if any. â€Å"Council of Leaders† – the body composed of the heads of various stUdent organizations chaired by the President/Chairman of the Student Council. â€Å"Tuition Fee† – The fee representing direct costs of instructions, training and other related activities, and the use of school facilities. The term â€Å"other school fees† refers to fees which cover other necessary costs supportive of instruction, including but not limited to medical and dental, athletic, library, laboratory, and Citizen Army Training (CAT) or Citizen Military Training (CMT) fees. CHAPTER II RIGHT TO ADMISSION AND QUALITY EDUCATION SEC. 5. Admission. . (a) No student shall be denied admission to any school on account of his/her physical handicap, socio-economic status, political or religious beliefs, or shall pregnant students and certified reformed drug abusers be discriminated against. A student shall have the right to freely choose his/her field of study subject to existing curricula and the instituti. on’s admissions policies and to continue his/her course up to graduation except in case of academic deficiency, inability to meet program requirement, or violation of disciplinary regulations which do not infringe upon the exercise of students’ rights. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (b) SEC. 6. Rights to Competent Instruction and Relevant Quality Education. Every student shall have the right to competent instruction and quality education to relevant to his/her personal and cultural development and  that of the nation, and commensurate to the school fees paid, and for state institutions, public subsidies granted. Students shall have the right to make a written evaluation of the performance of their teachers toward the end of the school term. SEC. 7. Right to Adequate Student Services and Academic Facilities. It shall be the responsibility of the school administration to provide the students with adequate student services and academic facilities commensurate to the school fees paid, and for SCUs, public subsidies granted. CHAPTER III RIGHT TO ORGANIZE SEC. 8. Right to Organize among Themselves. Unity and collective effort being fundamental to the realization of common goal and the promotion and protection of common interest, the State recognizes the right of student to organize among themselves . . The rights of student to form, assist, or join any campus organization, alliance or federation, not contrary to the school mission, for their physical, intellectual, moral, cultural, spiritual and political interest shall not be abridged. SEC. 9. Student Council/Government. The State shall ensure the democratic and autonomous existence of student councils/governments. Pursuant thereto, there shall be one student council/government for each school campus, which shall be given recognition by the school, colleges and universities concerned. It shall have its own. set of officers elected in annual popular elections. Every student council/government shall have the right to determine its policies and program on student activities subject to this duly ratified charter or constitution, school rules and regulation, and state policy. SEC. 10. Recognition of and Granting of privileges to Student Organizations. No unreasonable requirements shall be imposed on student organizations seeking recognition. The guidelines concerning recognition shall be formulated by the Student Affairs Office in consultation with the student council. The process for seeking recognition shall begin upon the submission to the Student Affairs Office by the organization concerned on its (1) concept paper and constitution; and (2) a formal letter addressed to the Student Affairs stating that the organization’s intent to be recognized. Recognition will be granted by the Students affairs Office upon compliance with the guidelines. There shall be no discrimination in the assignment of school facilities and granting of other privileges to student organizations. Excessive charges for the use of school facilities shall be prohibited. Whenever possible the school administration shall allow stud~nt organizations to use school facilities free of charge. SEC. 11. Coordination of Student Organizations’ Activities. All on and off campus activities of student organization shall be coordinated by the student council/government in consultation with the Student affairs office. The Committee on Elections (COMELEC) constituted to conduct the election of the officers of the student council/government shall be composed solely of bona fide student of the school. The conduct of the student council election shall be held in coordination with the Student Affairs Office. SEC. 12. Prohibition against the Use of Force and Exaction and Excessive. All campus organization shall be prohibited from using force in initiation and from exacting excessive fees from their members, as well as in their other student’s activities. CHAPTER IV RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN POLICY MAKING SEC. 13. Representation in policy-making process. The student shall be represented in policy-making bodies (other than the governing board) which directly affect their welfare, especially in curriculum review, student discipline and academic standards. The representatives shall be designed by the student council. SEC. 14. Student Initiative and Referendum. The student council/government through a majority vote of all the members of the student body shall have the right to initiate the formulation, modification or rejection of a school policy affecting the students. The proposition for the formulation, modification or rejection of a school policy affecting the students shall be submitted to and approved by a majority of votes casts by all bona fide students of the school in an areas shall be excluded from the power of students on initiative or referendum: (a) admission; (b) curriculum; gc) faculty recruitment and tenure; (d) rules on student conduct and discipline; (e) tuition fees; and (f) scholastic rules (e. g.academic credits and retention and graduation of students). CHAPTER V RIGHT TO FREE EXPRESSION AND INFORMATION AND RIGHT TO ACADEMIC FREEDOM , SEC. 15. Right to be Informed. The right of the student to be given information upon request on matters directly affecting their welfare shall be recog ·nized. SEC. 16. Freedom of Expression. Subject to existing laws and school rules and regulations, students shall have the right to freely express their view and opinions. SEC. 17. Academic Freedom. Students’ academic freedom shall subject to school rules and regulations and the exercise by the school and members of the faculty of their respective academic freedom, consist of, but is not limited to, the following rights: (a) To conduct research in connection with academic work, and to freely discuss and publish their findings and recommendations; (b) To conduct inquiry in curricular and extracurricular activities within the campus and in appropriate circumstances; (c) To choose a field of study for research and to pursue the quest for truth; to express their opinion on any subject of public or general concern which directly or indirectly affects the students of the educational system; (d) To invite off-campus speakers or resource persons to student sponsored assemblies, fora, symposia, and other activities of similar nature; (e) To express contrary interpretation or dissenting opinions inside and outside the classroom; (f) To participate in the drafting of a new curriculum and in the review or revision of the old; and (g) To participate in the drafting and/or revising of the student handbook which shall include the school rules and regulations, a copy of which shall be furnished the students upon admission to the school. , CHAPTER VI . RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS IN DISCIPLINARY PROCEEDINGS . SEC. 18. Right to Due Process. (a) (b) A student subject tot disciplinary proceedings shall have the right to defend himself/herself, to be heard and to present evidence on his/her behalf before an impartial body. There shall be a Student Disciplinary Board to be composed of two (2) representatives form the school administration, one (1) faculty member, and two (2) students to conduct investigations into and decide on cases student violation of disciplinary standards. The blacklisting, expulsion, suspension and other such disciplinary sanctions that may be taken against a student shall not be valid unless the following rights have been observed: (1) the right to be informed in writing of the nature and cause of the accusations against his/her; (2) the right to confront witnesses against him/her and to have full access to the evidence on the case; (3) the right to defend himself/herself and to be defended by a represented or counsel of his/her choice, adequate time being given for the preparation of a defense; (4) the right to a hearing before the student Disciplinary Board; (5) the right against self incrimination; and (6) the right to appeal adverse decisions of the Student Disciplinary Board to the governing board and ultimately to the appropriate education agencies. (c) The decision in any disciplinary proceeding must be rendered in the basis of relevant and sUbstantial evidence presented at the hearing, or at least contained in the record and disclosed to the student affected. The deciding body must act on its own independent consideration of the facts of the case. The body should, in all controversial questions, render its decision in such a manner that the issues involved, and the reasons for any decision made are clear to the student. (d) Disciplinary sanctions shall be corrective rather publish on a periodic basis acts which are deem violate or school rules and regulations and the corresponding disciplinary sanctions do not violate the rights guaranteed herein and under the Constitution. CHAPTER VII OTHER RIGHTS SEC. 19. Right Against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures. Every student shall be free from any form of unreasonable search and seizure. Except for the following instances no search or seizure of a student shall be deemed valid: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Searches made at the point of ingress and egress by authorized personnel of the school. Searches and seizures of illegal article or articles falling in the plain view of duly authorized personnel; Searches and seizures of articles that are illegal, discovered inadvertently by duly authorized personnel; Searches made when the student is about to commit, is committing or has just committed a crime or a serious infraction of the school’s rules and regulations; Searches made with a valid search warrant. Articles seized in violation of the here above mentioned provided rights shall not be used as evidence against the student in any disciplinary action that may be brought against him/her. SEC. 20. Access to School Records and Issuance of Official Certificates. Subject to the provision of the following section, every student shall have access to her/him own school record, the confidentiality of which the school shall  ·maintain. He/she shall have the right to be issued official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer credentials and other similar documents within thirty (30) days from the filing of request and accomplishment of all pertinent requirements. SEC. 21. Unpaid Tuition Fees and Examination. No student shall be prohibited from taking a periodic or final examination because of unpaid tuition and other fees under the established terms of payment prescribed by the school concemed and approved by the appropriate education agency. Students with delinquent fees permitted to take an examination shall nevertheless be subject to the right of the school concerned to withhold the release or issuance of such students’ school records or of the documents mentioned in the preceding section or to deny such students’ admission at the next succeeding term or year until the prior delinquencies are fully paid.